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Bifidobacterium-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale membrane-bound particles secreted by Bifidobacterium species, particularly Bifidobacterium longum. These EVs contain diverse bioactive molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids that can modulate host cellular functions. Mechanistically, they have been shown to protect hepatocytes against fibrosis, apoptosis, and oxidative damage by modulating the TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway in preclinical models of liver disease. Additionally, these EVs stimulate the innate immune system through the production of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) from immune cells like macrophages and dendritic cells via clathrin-mediated endocytosis and macropinocytosis. They are being explored as novel nanomaterials for immunotherapy or adjuvant therapy due to their ability to activate host immune responses[1][2].
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